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IN-DEPTH FEATURES
Introduction
The field of genetics is experiencing a knowledge explosion.
The Human Genome Project of the United States Government is
analyzing and mapping the entire DNA of mankind. With this
new information comes consequences. Improvement in health,
longer life, gene-engineered food, genetic screening, and
much more, are all areas of new power and concern requiring
wisdom and guidance from our sages.
On Monday, June 26 -- 23 Sivan, the U.S. and British
governments, as well as a private corporation, announced that
it had basically mapped the human genetic information. What
this means technically we will explain in more detail below,
because it is necessary in order to understand what we have
to report. But the achievement of reading the human genetic
code holds promise and power for important new
achievements.
We wish to stress that this research does not appear to have
any halachic consequences whatsoever, but the results are a
tremendous kiddush Hashem (see editorial "Judaism is a
Family-Based Way of Life" in this issue).
Background
Genetics is the study of biological inheritance. Molecular
genetics studies the DNA -- which is the molecule which
carries the genetic information.
DNA is in virtually every cell of every living organism --
the code is universal. It has been called the "fundamental
molecule of life."
DNA has the capacity to split and replicate itself, which is
the mechanism for passing information, which is heredity.
When it splits and replicates then two new DNA molecules are
formed where before there was only one.
The DNA molecule is a double-helix chain of nucleotides --
organized like the rungs of a spiral staircase. The
nucleotides are distinguished by their bases -- adenine (A),
guanine (G), thymine (T) and cytosine (C).
It is the particular sequence of the nucleotides that
determines what the DNA will code for. One order of
nucleotides will produce a particular protein, and ultimately
a particular organ, and a different order will produce
something else.
Altogether, the human genome has about 3 billion of these
base pairs, which are the "letters" in which the genetic code
for making the human body is written. The Human Genome
Project is trying to find out the entire sequence of base
pairs in the human genome.
However, as far as science knows today, not all of the long
human DNA strings (a total of about two meters) carry
information that is used to make the human body. Large parts
of the DNA, in fact the vast majority of it, seem to have no
genetic function and to carry no genetic information. These
parts of the DNA are called "non-coding" and they appear to
make up about 90 percent of the total. The non- coding DNA is
still arranged in a specific order and that order is
nonetheless passed on reliably from parent to children.
The areas of the DNA which code for proteins are called
"genes." These produce a physical trait and directly affect
the makeup of the body. Estimates of the number of genes in
human DNA are uncertain at this time, but they range from
70,000 to 250,000.
In the copying process, rare, apparently random changes occur
in the sequence of the DNA nucleotides. These are called
mutations. If a mutation occurs in a gene-coding area of the
DNA it can cause a malfunction in the body. In that case, if
the problem is serious, the descendants with that mutation
will not survive.
However, a mutation can also occur in the non-coding area and
there it does not physically affect the person and it is
passed on down the generations with no ill effects. Because
of these mutations in the non-coding areas of the DNA, people
can have different DNA which seems to make no physical
difference.
Population genetics studies use these rare mutations as
markers which can distinguish peoples' lineage. Since the DNA
is passed down from parent to child, a study of the
particular mutations present in a person's DNA can shed light
on who his ancestors were.
DNA is contained in chromosomes which are located in the
nucleus of each human cell. In people, 23 pairs of
chromosomes contain the human genome -- the totality of a
person's genetic information. They are of varying lengths.
Females have 2 copies of chromosomes 1 through 22 plus two
copies of the X chromosome; males have 2 copies of
chromosomes 1 through 22 and one X and one Y chromosome
Thus, the biological determiner of maleness is the "Y"
chromosome. The mother provides an "X" (female) chromosome to
all of her children. The father provides either an "X"
inherited from his mother and thereby producing a daughter,
or a "Y" producing a son, which in turn he inherited from his
father.
The Y chromosome is unique among all the other chromosomes in
that it does not exchange DNA and is passed virtually
unchanged from father to son. Therefore, a man's lineage
through his father and his father's father and so on can be
traced through his Y chromosome. This is done by identifying
and comparing combinations of those rare, non-coding
mutations in the Y chromosome. A particular combination of
these rare mutations is called a haplotype, and it is used to
distinguish an ancestral paternal line.
Population geneticists also study maternal lineage by
examining the mitrochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which is found in
each cell. This information is passed by the mother to both
her sons and daughters virtually unchanged. This research has
indicated that all of mankind is genetically related, sharing
its mtDNA in common.
Using these newly developed research tools, researchers hope
to learn more about world history and population origins and
migrations.
The Jewish people provides an unique opportunity to study a
population with ancient roots and many modern branches.
Genetic research into the history and lineage of the Jews has
thus far confirmed tradition and shown that the lineage of
the Jews is remarkably pure. Jews from all over the world,
even if they look like the non-Jewish populations in which
they lived for many generations, remain genetically closer to
other Jews than to non-Jewish populations.
The first study discussed here focused on the Cohanim. It
indicates, on the basis of the genetic evidence, that Cohanim
today all descended from a single common ancestor who lived
about 3,300 years ago -- just about the time that Aharon
Hacohen lived.
The second study indicates that all the Jewish communities
throughout the far-flung Diaspora, originated in the Middle
East and retained their genetic identity for thousands of
years displaying a remarkable genetic purity indicative of a
very low rate of intermarriage.
Cohanim Forever: The Common DNA Signature of
Cohanim
Going to shul is meant to be an uplifting spiritual
experience. Sometimes, it provides the catalyst for an
insight which leads to a scientific breakthrough and a
sanctification of the name of Hashem.
Dr. Karl Skorecki was attending services one morning. The
Torah was removed from the ark and a Cohen was called for the
first aliya. The Cohen called up that particular
morning was a Jew of Sephardic background, whose parents were
born in North Africa. Skorecki is also a Cohen, though he is
of Ashkenazi background: his parents were born in Eastern
Europe.
Karl (Kalman) Skorecki looked at the Sephardic Cohen's
physical features and considered his own physical features.
The two of them were significantly different in stature, skin
coloration and hair and eye color. Yet both had a tradition
of being Cohanim -- which means that they must be direct
descendants of one man: Aharon Hacohen.
Aharon was the original Cohen, appointed by Hashem in the
desert for special duties and to lead a special life of
dedicated service to Hashem. The line of the Cohanim is
patrilineal; it passes from father to son. If the tradition
is correct, it was passed without interruption from Aharon
for 3,300 years until today, which adds up to more than 100
generations.
Dr. Skorecki considered, "According to tradition, this
Sephardic Cohen and I have a common ancestor. Could this line
have been maintained since Sinai, and throughout the long
exile of the Jewish people?"
As a scientist, he wondered: Could such a claim be tested?
Being a nephrologist and a top-level researcher at both the
University of Toronto and the Rambam-Technion Medical Center
in Haifa, he was involved in the breakthroughs in molecular
genetics which are revolutionizing medicine and the study of
the life sciences. He was also aware of the newly developing
application of DNA analysis to the study of history and
population diversity.
He considered a hypothesis: if the Cohanim are descendants of
one man, they should have a common set of genetic markers --
a common haplotype. They should all have the genetic
haplotype of their common ancestor: Aharon Hacohen.
The Y chromosome, aside from the genes determining maleness
which are pretty short, consists almost entirely of non-
coding DNA. For that reason, it tends to accumulate mutations
in those non-coding areas. Since the Y chromosome is passed
from father to son without change, the genetic information on
a Y chromosome of a man living today is basically the same as
that of all his male ancestors from the recent to the
ancient, except for some rare mutations that may have
occurred along the hereditary line.
A particular combination of these neutral mutations in the Y
chromosome that can be used to identify a line of males is
known as a haplotype.
Dr. Skorecki made contact with Professor Michael Hammer of
the University of Arizona, a leading researcher in molecular
genetics and a pioneer in Y chromosome research. Professor
Hammer uses DNA analysis to study the history of populations,
their origins and migrations. His previous research included
work on the origins of the Native American Indians and the
development of the Japanese people.
A study was undertaken to test the hypothesis of a common
ancestor for all Cohanim. If there was a common ancestor, the
Cohanim should have common genetic markers. These may not be
in 100 percent of all the Cohanim, but they would be expected
to occur in the population of Cohanim at a much higher
frequency than in the general Jewish population.
In the first study, as reported in the prestigious British
science journal, Nature on January 2, 1997, 188 Jewish
males were asked to contribute some cheek cells from which
their DNA was extracted for study. Participants from Israel,
England and North America were asked to identify whether they
were a Cohen, Levi or Israelite, and to identify their ethnic
family background.
The results of the analysis of the Y chromosome markers of
the Cohanim and non-Cohanim indeed showed significant
differences. A particular marker, (called YAP-) was detected
in 98.5 percent of the Cohanim, and in a significantly lower
percentage of non-Cohanim Jews.
Cohen Modal Haplotype
In a second study, Dr. Skorecki and associates gathered more
DNA samples and expanded their selection of Y chromosome
markers. Solidifying their hypothesis of the Cohanim's common
ancestor, they found that a particular array of six
chromosomal markers was found in 97 of the 106 Cohanim they
tested. This collection of markers has come to be known as
the Cohen Modal Haplotype (CMH) -- and is now considered the
standard genetic signature of the Jewish priestly family. The
chances of these findings happening at random are less than
one in 10,000.
The finding of a common set of genetic markers in both
Ashkenazi and Sephardic Cohanim worldwide clearly indicates
an origin and common ancestor predating the separate
development of the two communities that began not later than
around the year 1000 (4760). Date calculation based on the
variation of the mutations among Cohanim today yields a time
frame of 106 generations from the ancestral founder of the
line, which adds up to about 3,300 years -- the approximate
time of the Exodus from Egypt, the lifetime of Aharon
Hacohen.
Professor Hammer was recently in Israel for the Jewish Genome
Conference. He confirmed that his findings are consistent
that over 80 percent of self-identified Cohanim have a common
set of genetic markers.
The finding that less than one-third of the non-Cohen Jews
who were tested possess these markers is not surprising to
the geneticists. Jewishness is not defined genetically. Other
Y-chromosomes can enter the Jewish gene pool through
conversion or through a non-Jewish father. Jewish status is
determined by the mother. Tribe membership within the Jewish
people, however, also follows the father's line. Therefore,
though this marker may have once been present in all Jews, it
remains only in Cohanim whose heritage guarantees an unbroken
male line back to Aharon Hacohen.
Calculations based on the high rate of genetic similarity of
today's Cohanim resulted in the highest "paternity-
certainty" rate ever recorded in population genetics studies -
- a scientific testimony to the family faithfulness of the
Jewish people and especially the Cohanim.
No Levi Marker
In their second published paper in Nature (July 9,
1998) the researchers included an unexpected finding. Those
Jews in the study who identified themselves as Levites did
not show a common set of markers as did the Cohanim. The
Levites did cluster in three marker groupings, one of them
the CMH. Levy was Aharon's great-grandfather, only three
generations earlier than Aharon. Thus, all the Levites should
also show the same genetic signature from their common
paternal patrilineal ancestor.
It is interesting to note that the tribe of Levi has a
history of small numbers. The census of Bamidbar shows
Levi to be the smallest of the tribes.
After the Babylonian exile, the Levites failed to return
en masse to Jerusalem, though urged by Ezra Hasofer to
do so. They were therefore fined by losing their exclusive
rights to ma'aser. Though one might expect that the
Levites should be more numerous than Cohanim, today in
synagogue, it is not unusual to have a minyan with a
surplus of Cohanim and yet without even one Levite.
The researchers are now focusing effort on the study of the
Levites' genetic makeup to learn more about their history in
the Diaspora.
Using the CMH as a DNA signature of the ancient Hebrews,
researchers are pursuing a hunt for Jewish genes around the
world. The search for lost tribes, whether the Biblical ten
lost tribes of Malchus Yisroel which were uprooted
from Eretz Yisrael by the Assyrians, or other would-be Jews,
Hebrews or "chosen peoples," is not new. Now, using the
genetic markers of the Cohanim as a yardstick and guideline,
these genetic archaeologists are using DNA research to
discover historical links to the Jewish people. It should be
stressed that this research has as yet no halachic
recognition.
Many individual Cohanim and others have approached the
researchers to be tested. The researchers' policy is that the
research is not a test of individuals, but an examination of
the extended family as a whole.
Having the CMH is certainly not a proof of one's being a
Cohen. For one, a significant number of non-Cohanim also have
the marker. Also, there may be family problems which nullify
their status as Cohanim, known as pesulei Cehuna.
Chalolim, for example, the children of a Cohen who
entered into a forbidden union such as marrying a divorced
woman, should have genetic markers identical to those of a
regular Cohen even though their status is more similar to
that of a Yisroel. The mother's side is also significant in
determining one's Cohanic status.
At present, there are no halachic ramifications of this
discovery and it is not clear that there ever will be or can
be. No one is certified nor disqualified as a Cohen because
of his Y chromosome markers or lack thereof.
The research, which began with an idea in shul, has
shown a clear genetic relationship amongst Cohanim and their
direct lineage from a common ancestor. The research findings
support the Torah statements that the line of Aharon will
last throughout history. That our Torah tradition is
supported by these findings should be a reinforcement for
Cohanim and for all those who know that the Torah is truth,
and that Hashem surely keeps His promises.
May we soon see Cohanim at their service, Levites on their
Temple platform and Israelites at their places.
A Blessing Forever
Just as the Cohanim's lineage spans more than 3,000 years, so
does the blessing which they deliver (daily in Eretz Yisroel,
on holidays elsewhere) span Jewish history. Since its
inception at the inauguration of the Mishkan on Rosh
Chodesh Nisan, 2449 (1311 BCE), the blessing of the Cohanim
has been recited daily by descendants of Aharon Hacohen
somewhere in the world, every day.
It is a remnant of the Temple service which was never lost.
After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, the
mishmoros -- family service groups of Cohanim -- kept
their tradition of knowing the week of their particular watch
at the Temple. Jewish communities have always included the
Bircas Cohanim in their communal service as a Biblical
commandment.
Sephardic custom, as written in the Shulchan Oruch, is
for the Cohanim to bless the congregation every day.
Following the Rema, the Ashkenazic custom was to bless only
on Holidays. Presently in Eretz Yisroel, following the
approach of the Vilna Gaon that was adopted by his
talmidim who came to Eretz Yisroel, the custom has
been restored to recite the Blessing every day, twice on
Shabbos, Rosh Chodesh and yom tov and three times on
Yom Kippur and in some places also three times on other fast
days.
Also interesting is the fact that the oldest archaeological
find of Biblical text is that of the Bircas Cohanim.
Two small silver scrolls were found near the Old City of
Jerusalem in the area of burial caves from the First Temple
period with the three-phrase blessing inscribed in ancient
Hebrew script. They are currently on display at the Israel
Museum.
Cohanim Forever: From The Sources
Hashem's promise to Aharon and his sons of continuity
throughout all generations is mentioned repeatedly in the
Written Torah, the Prophets and the Oral Torah.
The following pesukim in the Torah indicate that
Cohanim will continue: "Bring close Aharon your brother and
his sons with him from among the children of Israel to become
Cohanim to Me" (Shemos 28:1) (Every use of the Hebrew
word "Li," means for all time -- Midrash
Hagodol)
"...and they shall have the Cehuna as a statute forever, and
you shall consecrate Aharon and his sons." (Shemos
29:9)
"And anoint them as you anointed their father, that they may
serve Me, and it shall be for them an appointment to an
everlasting Cehuna / Priesthood throughout their
generations." (Shemos 40:15)
"You and your sons with you shall keep your Cehuna /
Priesthood ... I give your Cehuna / Priesthood as a gift of
service." (Bamidbar 18:17)
"... It is an everlasting covenant of salt before G-d with
you and with your descendants." (Bamidbar 18:19)
"And it shall be to him and to his descendants after him a
covenant of everlasting Cehuna / Priesthood."
(Bamidbar 25:13)
"For G-d your G-d has chosen him of all your tribes to stand
and serve with the name of G-d he and his sons forever."
(Devorim 18:5)
The following sources in the Nevi'im also show this:
"The Cohanim, the Levites, the sons of Tzadok kept the charge
of my Sanctuary when the children of Israel went astray from
Me, they shall come near to Me to serve Me and stand before
Me to offer before Me the fat and the blood, says the L-rd, G-
d." (Yechezkel 44:15)
"For the Cohen's lips shall keep knowledge, and Torah you
shall seek from his mouth, for he is a messenger of G-d."
(Malachi 2:7)
"Behold I shall send to you Eliyahu the Prophet before the
coming of the great and awesome day of G-d." (Malachi
3:21)
In the Mishna and Gemora we find the following:
"The Sanhedrin sat and judged the Cohanim . . . if no
disqualifications were found, they made a holiday and
proclaimed, `Blessed is G-d, that no disqualification was
found in the descendants of Aharon, and blessed is He that
chose Aharon and his sons to stand and serve before Him in
the holy Temple.' " (Mishna Middos 5:4)
"When the Holy One, blessed be He, will purify the tribes,
the tribe of Levi will be purified first..."
(Kiddushin 17a)
*
DNA Evidence for Common Jewish Origin and
Maintenance of an Ancestral Jewish Genetic Profile
Recently published research (May, 2000) in the field of
molecular genetics also indicates that Jewish populations of
the various Diaspora communities have retained their genetic
identity throughout the exile. Despite large geographic
distances between the communities and the passage of
thousands of years, far removed Jewish communities share a
similar genetic profile. This research confirms the common
ancestry and common geographic origin of world Jewry.
Jewish men from communities which developed in the Near East -
- Iran / Iraq, Kurds, Yemenites, Roman Jews, and Ashkenazim /
European Jews -- have very similar, almost identical, genetic
profiles.
Discussing these findings, Professor M. F. Hammer wrote in
the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
(May 9, 2000): "Despite their long-term residence in
different countries and isolation from one another, most
Jewish populations were not significantly different from one
another at the genetic level. The results support the
hypothesis that the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities
from Europe, North Africa and the Middle East descended from
a common Middle Eastern ancestral population, and suggest
that most Jewish communities have remained relatively
isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and
after the Diaspora."
The basis of this new field of population research is the
study of the Y-chromosome, which is passed virtually
unchanged from father to son. As explained above, the rare
mutations -- which are changes in the non-coding portion of
its DNA -- can serve as markers which can distinguish
peoples. By studying the genetic signatures of various
groups, comparisons can be made to determine the genetic
relationships between the groups.
Y-chromosome research of the Jewish people began as an
outgrowth of the study of Cohanim described earlier.
This genetic research proceeds by obtaining DNA samples, and
then doing laboratory analysis and comparison of the DNA
markers on the Y-chromosome -- which is passed from father to
son, and on the mtDNA (mitrochondrial DNA) -- which is passed
intact from mother to both her sons and daughters. This
genetic anthropology promises to be particularly informative
for tracking the history of Jewish populations, and helping
to show the utter falsity of various libels that have been
raised about the origins and migrations of Jewish communities
in the Diaspora and their intermarriage with the non-Jewish
populations among which they lived for hundreds and thousands
of years.
The researchers proposed to answer the question whether the
scattered groups of modern Jews are really the descendants of
the ancient Hebrews of the Bible, or are instead converted
non-Jews and or are so diluted by intermarriage that little
remains of their "Jewish genes."
The complex recorded history of dispersal from the Land of
Israel and subsequent residence in various countries in
Europe, North Africa and the Middle East and the migrations
made over the centuries (mostly involuntary) could be
expected to produce a complex pattern of genetic
relationships among Jewish populations and between them and
the non-Jewish peoples among whom they lived.
The research was based on samples from 29 populations --
seven of them Jewish -- in five major divisions: Jews, Middle-
Eastern non-Jews, Europeans, North Africans, and sub- Saharan
Africans.
The Results
The findings were that most Jewish communities, even those
long separated from one another in Europe, North Africa, the
Near East and the Arabian peninsula, do indeed seem to be
genetically similar and closely related to one another, and
thus they all seem to share a common geographical origin.
These Jewish communities are more closely related to each
other -- and also to other Middle Eastern Semitic populations
such as Palestinians, Syrians, and Druse -- than to their
neighboring non-Jewish populations in the Diaspora.
The results also indicate a low level of admixture
(intermarriage, conversion, and other relations with the non-
Jewish community) into the gene pool of these various Jewish
communities.
Among the Jewish communities sampled, North Africans
(Moroccans, Algerians, Libyans and others) were most closely
related to Babylonian (Iraqi) Jews. These populations may
best represent the paternal gene pool of the ancient Jewish /
Hebrew population dating back to the First Temple period,
before the Babylonian exile (approximately 2,500 years
ago).
The Y-chromosome signatures of the Yemenite Jews, who were
more isolated than other communities, are also similar to
those of other Jewish and Semitic populations.
In contrast, the paternal gene pool of Ethiopian Jews more
closely resembles that of non-Jewish Ethiopian men.
Although the Ashkenazic (European) community largely
separated from their Mediterranean coreligionists some 1,200
years ago and lived among Central and Eastern European
gentiles, their paternal gene pool still resembles that of
other Jewish and Semitic groups that originated in the Middle
East.
A low rate of intermarriage between Diaspora Jews and local
gentiles was the key reason for this continuity. Since the
Jews first settled in Europe more than 50 generations ago,
the intermarriage rate implied by the genetic results was
estimated to be only about 0.5% in each generation.
Intermarriage in the sense used by these scientific
researchers includes marriages between Jews and geirei
tzedek, since such unions would introduce the non-Jewish
genes of those geirim into the Jewish community. The
Jewish community, which does not define itself in racial but
in religious terms, has never considered those marriages to
be intermarriages. The low rate of genetic intermarriage is
consistent with the assumption that virtually all of the
marriages were between Jews or Jews and true converts, of
which there were generally very few given the low status of
Jewry, over the generations.
Intermarriage in the modern sense, which refers to marriages
between Jews and unconverted non-Jews, typically takes place
on a much larger scale than what is indicated by the genetic
purity.
Ashkenazic Jews are not Descendants of the
Khazars
Another finding is that the Ashkenazi paternal gene pool does
not appear to be similar to that of present-day Turkish
speakers. This finding opposes the suggestion that Ashkenazim
are descended from the Khazars, a Turkish-Asian empire that
converted to Judaism en masse in or about the 8th
century CE. It is the king of that community who is
represented in the famous work, the Kuzari, though
that work is primarily philosophical and includes very little
historical information.
The researchers are continuing and expanding their studies,
particularly of the Ashkenazi community. They are hoping that
by examining the DNA markers in Jewish populations from
different parts of Europe, they will be able to infer the
major historical and demographic patterns in Ashkenazi
populations. It may be possible to trace social relations and
migration patters using such genetic information.
In addition to questions of medical interest, there are many
interesting possibilities concerning the origin of Ashkenazi
populations and how they migrated in Europe.
The first Jewish settlements in Europe were in Western
Europe, mainly in what is today Italy, France and Germany,
when those were areas under Roman rule starting even before
the destruction of the Bayis Sheini.
It seems likely that Jews began to arrive in Eastern Europe
perhaps only 1,000-1,200 years ago -- well after the fall of
the Roman Empire when the general non-Jewish settlement was
already sufficiently civilized and developed enough to
provide them with opportunities to make a living.
One theory claims that the Jews of Eastern Europe derive
predominantly from Jewish migrants from Western Europe, from
the Rhineland or from Italy, being fairly direct descendants
of the original ancient Jewish Hebrew populations in Western
Europe.
A second theory suggests a northerly migration from the
Balkans or from Central Asia that would be of Jews from
Oriental backgrounds such as the Babylonian community, with
the possibility of large scale additions by conversions of
Slavs and/or Khazars to Judaism.
This argument parallels the controversy over the origin and
development of Yiddish -- the language of Eastern European
Jews. One theory proposes that Jews migrating from the
Rhineland and neighboring regions spoke an old form of German
which was later the basis of Yiddish.
Other scholars reject the German origin of Yiddish. These
linguists see Yiddish grammar as fundamentally Slavic, with
modern Yiddish developed by incorporating large numbers of
German and Hebrew words into the framework of a basically
Slavic grammar and syntax.
There has not been enough historical evidence to decide
between these theories. Now, with the newly developed genetic
methods, it is possible to test these ideas, for example to
see if there was any significant Slavic genetic contribution
to modern Ashkenazic Jewry. Early indications from this study
seem to support the first alternative: that the pattern was
Mediterranean Jews who moved to Western Europe and then to
Eastern Europe.
The researchers plan to continue their research by
investigating genetic variation in populations that can trace
their Jewish ancestry to localized communities of Europe, in
order to better understand the history and development of
Ashkenazic Jewry.
Proof of Jewish Loyalty for over 2,000
Years
In general these genetic research findings support Jewish
tradition -- both written and oral. After over one thousand
years in the Land of Israel in the times of the shofetim,
nevi'im and the Kings of the Davidic line, Jews dispersed
to many and distant locations throughout the world.
Some Jewish exile communities were relatively stable for two
millennia -- such as in Babylon (modern Iraq), Persia (Iran)
and Yemen. Others developed centuries later, following
successive migrations to North Africa and Europe.
All of these communities maintained Jewish customs and
religious observance despite prolonged periods of
persecution. Jews remained generally and culturally isolated
from their host communities. These genetic studies are a
strong testimony to Jewish family faithfulness.
Only the Jewish people in the history of mankind has retained
its genetic identity for over 100 generations while being
spread throughout the world -- a truly unique and inspiring
finding.
Fulfillment of a Prophecy
Perhaps, even more unique and inspiring is that this most
unlikely scenario was a prophecy and a promise.
"And Hashem shall scatter you among all the peoples from one
end of the earth to the other end of the earth" -- Devorim
28:64.
"And G-d shall return your captivity and be merciful to you,
and will return and gather you from all the nations whither G-
d has scattered you." -- Devorim 30:3
"As the natural laws are set before Me, so shall the seed of
Israel never cease from being a nation before Me, forever." --
Yirmiyahu 31:36
Acknowledgement
Thanks to Professor Edward Simon, microbiologist at Purdue
University, lecturer and board member of the Association of
Orthodox Jewish Scientists, for his expert input on the part
about Cohanim.
Rabbi Yaakov Hacohen Kleiman is a lecturer at Aish
HaTorah, Jerusalem, specializing in Temple studies. He is co-
director, with Rabbi Nachman Kahana, of the Center for
Cohanim.
Cohanim and Levites interested in participating in the DNA
research and/or receiving further information please contact:
Email: kaldeb@netvision.net.il
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